and¡¡the¡¡pull¡¡of¡¡the¡¡supporting¡¡string¡£
CHAPTER¡¡VII
ABNORMAL¡¡FLYING¡¡STUNTS¡¡AND¡¡SPEEDS
¡¨PEQUOD£»¡¡a¡¡Frenchman£»¡¡yesterday¡¡repeatedly
performed¡¡the¡¡remarkable¡¡feat¡¡of¡¡flying¡¡with¡¡the
machine¡¡upside¡¡down¡£¡¡This¡¡exhibition¡¡shows
that¡¡the¡¡age¡¡of¡¡perfection¡¡has¡¡arrived¡¡in¡¡flying
machines£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡stability¡¡is¡¡an¡¡accomplished
fact¡£¡¨News¡¡item¡£
This¡¡is¡¡quoted¡¡to¡¡show¡¡how¡¡little¡¡the¡¡general
public¡¡knows¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡of¡¡aviation¡£¡¡It¡¡correctly
represents¡¡the¡¡achievement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡aviator£»
and¡¡it¡¡probably¡¡voiced¡¡the¡¡sentiment¡¡of¡¡many
scientific¡¡men£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡majority¡¡of
aviators¡£
A¡¡few¡¡days¡¡afterwards£»¡¡the¡¡same¡¡newspaper
published¡¡the¡¡following£º
¡¨Lieutenant¡¡£»¡¡while¡¡experimenting¡¡yesterday
morning£»¡¡met¡¡his¡¡death¡¡by¡¡the¡¡overturning
of¡¡his¡¡machine¡¡at¡¡an¡¡altitude¡¡of¡¡300¡¡meters¡£
Death¡¡was¡¡instantaneous£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡machine¡¡was
completely¡¡destroyed¡£¡¨
The¡¡machines¡¡used¡¡by¡¡the¡¡two¡¡men¡¡were¡¡of¡¡the
same¡¡manufacture£»¡¡as¡¡Pequod¡¡used¡¡a¡¡stock¡¡machine
which¡¡was¡¡strongly¡¡braced¡¡to¡¡support¡¡the
inverted¡¡weight£»¡¡but¡¡otherwise¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡unlike
the¡¡well¡¡known¡¡type¡¡of¡¡monoplane¡£
Beachy¡¡has¡¡since¡¡repeated¡¡the¡¡experiment¡¡with
a¡¡bi¡plane£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡feat¡¡which¡¡has¡¡many¡¡imitators£»
and¡¡while¡¡those¡¡remarkable¡¡exhibitions
are¡¡going¡¡on£»¡¡one¡¡catastrophe¡¡follows¡¡the¡¡other
with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡regularity¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡past¡£
Let¡¡us¡¡consider¡¡this¡¡phase¡¡of¡¡flying¡£¡¡Are¡¡they
of¡¡any¡¡value£»¡¡and¡¡wherein¡¡do¡¡they¡¡teach¡¡anything
that¡¡may¡¡be¡¡utilized£»
LACK¡¡OF¡¡IMPROVEMENTS¡¡IN¡¡MACHINES¡£It¡¡is¡¡remarkable
that¡¡not¡¡one¡¡single¡¡forward¡¡step¡¡has
been¡¡taken¡¡to¡¡improve¡¡the¡¡type¡¡of¡¡flying¡¡machines
for¡¡the¡¡past¡¡five¡¡years¡£¡¡They¡¡possess¡¡the¡¡same
shape£»¡¡their¡¡stabilizing¡¡qualities¡¡and¡¡mechanism
for¡¡assuring¡¡stability¡¡are¡¡still¡¡the¡¡same¡£
MEN¡¡EXPEDITED£»¡¡AND¡¡NOT¡¡THE¡¡MACHINE¡£The
fact¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡during¡¡this¡¡period¡¡the¡¡man¡¡has¡¡been
exploited¡¡and¡¡not¡¡the¡¡machine¡£¡¡Men¡¡have¡¡learned£»
some¡¡few¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡peculiar¡¡stunts£»
such¡¡as¡¡looping¡¡the¡¡loop£»¡¡the¡¡side¡¡glide£»¡¡the¡¡drop£»
and¡¡other¡¡features£»¡¡which¡¡look£»¡¡and¡¡are£»¡¡hazardous£»
all¡¡of¡¡which¡¡pander¡¡to¡¡the¡¡sentiments¡¡of¡¡the¡¡spectators¡£
ABNORMAL¡¡FLYING¡¡OF¡¡NO¡¡VALUE¡£It¡¡would¡¡be
too¡¡broad¡¡an¡¡assertion¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡it¡¡has¡¡absolutely
no¡¡value£»¡¡because¡¡everything¡¡has¡¡its¡¡use
in¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡sense£»¡¡but¡¡if¡¡we¡¡are¡¡to¡¡judge¡¡from
the¡¡progress¡¡of¡¡inventions¡¡in¡¡other¡¡directions£»
such¡¡exhibitions¡¡will¡¡not¡¡improve¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡building
the¡¡device£»¡¡or¡¡make¡¡a¡¡fool¡proof¡¡machine¡£
Indeed£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡the¡¡very¡¡thing¡¡which¡¡serves¡¡as¡¡a
deterrent£»¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡an¡¡incentive¡£¡¡If¡¡machines
can¡¡be¡¡handled¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡remarkable¡¡manner£»¡¡they
must¡¡be£»¡¡indeed£»¡¡perfect£¡¡¡Nothing¡¡more¡¡is
needed£¡¡¡They¡¡must¡¡represent¡¡the¡¡highest¡¡structural
type¡¡of¡¡mechanism£¡
That¡¡is¡¡the¡¡idea¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡be¡¡conveyed¡¡in¡¡the
first¡¡paragraph¡¡quoted¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡pernicious£»¡¡instead
of¡¡praiseworthy£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡gives¡¡a¡¡false¡¡impression£»
and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡remarkable¡¡that¡¡even¡¡certain¡¡scientific
journals¡¡have¡¡gravely¡¡discussed¡¡the¡¡perfected
£¨£¿£©¡¡type¡¡of¡¡flying¡¡machine¡¡as¡¡demonstrated
by¡¡the¡¡experiments¡¡alluded¡¡to¡£
THE¡¡ART¡¡OF¡¡JUGGLING¡£We¡¡may£»¡¡occasionally£»
see¡¡a¡¡cyclist¡¡who¡¡understands¡¡the¡¡art¡¡of¡¡balancing
so¡¡well¡¡that¡¡he¡¡can£»¡¡with¡¡ease£»¡¡ride¡¡a¡¡machine
which¡¡has¡¡only¡¡a¡¡single¡¡wheel£»¡¡or¡¡he¡¡can£»¡¡with¡¡a
stock¡¡bicycle£»¡¡ride¡¡it¡¡in¡¡every¡¡conceivable¡¡attitude£»
and¡¡make¡¡it¡¡perform¡¡all¡¡sorts¡¡of¡¡feats¡£
It¡¡merely¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡man¡¡has¡¡become¡¡an
expert¡¡at¡¡juggling¡¡with¡¡a¡¡machine£»¡¡the¡¡same¡¡as¡¡he
manipulates¡¡balls£»¡¡and¡¡wheels£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡artifices£»
by¡¡his¡¡dexterity¡£
PRACTICAL¡¡USES¡¡THE¡¡BEST¡¡TEST¡£The¡¡bicycle
did¡¡not¡¡require¡¡such¡¡displays¡¡to¡¡bring¡¡it¡¡to¡¡perfection¡£
It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡every¡¡invention
that¡¡improvements¡¡were¡¡brought¡¡about£»¡¡not
by¡¡abnormal¡¡experiments£»¡¡but¡¡by¡¡practical¡¡uses
and¡¡by¡¡normal¡¡developments¡£
The¡¡ability¡¡of¡¡an¡¡aviator¡¡to¡¡fly¡¡with¡¡the¡¡machine
in¡¡an¡¡inverted¡¡position¡¡is¡¡no¡¡test¡¡of¡¡the¡¡machine's
stability£»¡¡nor¡¡does¡¡it¡¡in¡¡any¡¡manner¡¡prove¡¡that
it¡¡is¡¡correctly¡¡built¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡simply¡¡and¡¡solely¡¡a
juggling¡¡featsomething¡¡in¡¡the¡¡capacity¡¡of¡¡a¡¡certain
man¡¡to¡¡perform£»¡¡and¡¡attract¡¡attention¡¡because
they¡¡are¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ordinary¡£
CONCAVED¡¡AND¡¡COXVEX¡¡PLANES£ºThey¡¡were¡¡performed
as¡¡exhibition¡¡features£»¡¡and¡¡intended¡¡as
such£»¡¡and¡¡none¡¡of¡¡the¡¡exponents¡¡of¡¡that¡¡kind¡¡of
flying¡¡have¡¡the¡¡effrontery¡¡to¡¡claim¡¡that¡¡they¡¡prove
anything¡¡of¡¡value¡¡in¡¡the¡¡machine¡¡itself£»¡¡except
that¡¡it¡¡incidentally¡¡has¡¡destroyed¡¡the¡¡largely
vaunted¡¡claim¡¡that¡¡concaved¡¡wings¡¡for¡¡supporting
surfaces¡¡are¡¡necessary¡£
HOW¡¡MOMENTUM¡¡IS¡¡A¡¡FACTOR¡¡IN¡¡INVERTED¡¡FLYING¡£
When¡¡flying¡¡¡¨upside¡¡down£»¡¨¡¡the¡¡convex
side¡¡of¡¡the¡¡plane¡¡takes¡¡the¡¡pressure¡¡of¡¡the¡¡air£»
and¡¡maintains£»¡¡so¡¡it¡¡is¡¡asserted£»¡¡the¡¡weight¡¡of¡¡the
machine¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡true¡¡during¡¡that¡¡period¡¡when
the¡¡loop¡¡is¡¡being¡¡made¡£¡¡The¡¡evolution¡¡is¡¡made
by¡¡first¡¡darting¡¡down£»¡¡as¡¡shown¡¡in¡¡Fig¡£¡¡31£»¡¡from
the¡¡horizontal¡¡position£»¡¡1£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡position¡¡2£»¡¡where
the¡¡turn¡¡begins¡£
_Fig¡£¡¡31¡£¡¡Flying¡¡upside¡¡down¡£_
TURNING¡¡MOVEMENT¡£Now¡¡note¡¡the¡¡characteristic
angles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡tail£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡the¡¡controlling
factor¡£¡¡In¡¡position¡¡1¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡is¡¡practically
horizontal¡£¡¡In¡¡fact£»¡¡in¡¡all¡¡machines£»¡¡at
high¡¡flight£»¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡is¡¡elevated¡¡so¡¡as¡¡to¡¡give¡¡little
positive¡¡angle¡¡of¡¡incidence¡¡to¡¡the¡¡supporting
planes¡£
In¡¡position¡¡No¡£¡¡2£»¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡is¡¡turned¡¡to¡¡an¡¡angle
of¡¡incidence¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡downward¡¡plunge£»¡¡and
when¡¡the¡¡machine¡¡has¡¡assumed¡¡the¡¡vertical£»¡¡as¡¡in
position¡¡3£»¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡is¡¡again¡¡reversed¡¡to¡¡assume
the¡¡angle£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡1£»¡¡when¡¡flying¡¡horizontally¡£
At¡¡the¡¡lower¡¡turn£»¡¡position¡¡4£»¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡is¡¡turned
similar¡¡to¡¡the¡¡angle¡¡of¡¡position¡¡2£»¡¡which¡¡throws
the¡¡rear¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡machine¡¡down£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡the
horizontal¡¡line¡¡of¡¡flight¡¡is¡¡resumed£»¡¡in¡¡an¡¡inverted
position£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡position¡¡4£»¡¡the¡¡tail¡¡has¡¡the¡¡same
angle£»¡¡with¡¡relation¡¡to¡¡the¡¡frame£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡supporting
planes¡£
During¡¡this¡¡evolution¡¡the¡¡engine¡¡is¡¡running£»¡¡and
the¡¡downward¡¡plunge¡¡develops¡¡a¡¡tremendous
speed£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡great¡¡momentum¡¡thus¡¡acquired£»
together¡¡with¡¡the¡¡pulling¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡propeller
while¡¡thus¡¡in¡¡flight£»¡¡is¡¡sufficient¡¡to¡¡propel¡¡it¡¡along
horizontally£»¡¡whatever¡¡the¡¡plane¡¡surface¡¡curve£»¡¡or
formation¡¡may¡¡be¡£
It¡¡is¡¡the¡¡momentum¡¡which¡¡sustains¡¡it¡¡in¡¡space£»
not¡¡the¡¡air¡¡pressure¡¡beneath¡¡the¡¡wings£»¡¡for
reasons¡¡which¡¡we¡¡have¡¡heretofore¡¡explained¡£
Flights¡¡of¡¡sufficient¡¡duration¡¡have¡¡thus¡¡been¡¡made
to¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡convex£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡concave¡¡surfaces
are¡¡efficient£»¡¡nevertheless£»¡¡in¡¡its¡¡proper¡¡place¡¡we
have¡¡given¡¡an¡¡exposition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡reasoning¡¡which
led¡¡to¡¡the¡¡adoption¡¡of¡¡the¡¡concaved¡¡supporting
surfaces¡£
WHEN¡¡CONCAVED¡¡PLANES¡¡ARE¡¡DESIRABLE¡£
Unquestionably£»¡¡for¡¡slow¡¡speeds¡¡the¡¡concaved¡¡wing
is¡¡desirable£»¡¡as¡¡will¡¡be¡¡explained£»¡¡but¡¡for¡¡high
speeds£»¡¡surface¡¡formation¡¡has¡¡no¡¡value¡£¡¡That¡¡is
shown¡¡by¡¡Pequod's¡¡feat¡£
THE¡¡SPEED¡¡MANIA¡£This¡¡is¡¡a¡¡type¡¡of¡¡mania
which¡¡pervades¡¡every¡¡field¡¡of¡¡activity¡¡in¡¡the¡¡building
of¡¡aeroplanes¡£¡¡Speed¡¡contests¡¡are¡¡of¡¡more
importance¡¡to¡¡the¡¡spectators¡¡on¡¡exhibition
grounds¡¡than¡¡stability¡¡or¡¡durability¡£¡¡Builders
pander¡¡to¡¡this£»¡¡hence¡¡machines¡¡are¡¡built¡¡on¡¡lines
which¡¡disregard¡¡every¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡safety
while¡¡at¡¡normal¡¡flight¡£
USES¡¡OF¡¡FLYING¡¡MACHINES¡£The¡¡machine¡¡as
now¡¡constructed¡¡is¡¡of¡¡little¡¡use¡¡commercially¡£
Within¡¡certain¡¡limitations¡¡it¡¡is¡¡valuable¡¡for¡¡scouting
purposes£»¡¡and¡¡attempts¡¡have¡¡been¡¡made¡¡to
use¡¡it¡¡commercially¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡unreliable¡¡character
of¡¡its¡¡performances£»¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡many¡¡elements
which¡¡are¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡its¡¡proper¡¡working£»¡¡have
operated¡¡against¡¡it¡£
PERFECTION¡¡IN¡¡MACHINES¡¡MUST¡¡COME¡¡BEFORE
SPEED¡£Contrary¡¡to¡¡every¡¡precept¡¡in¡¡the¡¡building
of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡article£»¡¡the¡¡attempt¡¡is¡¡made¡¡to¡¡make
a¡¡machine¡¡with¡¡high¡¡speed£»¡¡which£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡very
nature¡¡of¡¡things£»¡¡operates¡¡against¡¡its¡¡improvement¡£
The¡¡opposite¡¡lack¡¡of¡¡speedis¡¡of¡¡far
greater¡¡utility¡¡at¡¡this¡¡stage¡¡of¡¡its¡¡development¡£
THE¡¡RANGE¡¡OF¡¡ITS¡¡USE¡£The¡¡subject¡¡might¡¡be
illustrated¡¡by¡¡assuming¡¡that¡¡we¡¡have¡¡a¡¡line¡¡running
from¡¡A¡¡to¡¡Z£»¡¡which¡¡indicates¡¡the¡¡range¡¡of
speeds¡¡in¡¡aeroplanes¡£¡¡The¡¡limits¡¡of¡¡speeds¡¡are
fairly¡¡stated¡¡as¡¡being¡¡within¡¡thirty¡¡and¡¡eighty¡
five¡¡miles¡¡per¡¡hour¡£¡¡Less¡¡than¡¡thirty¡¡miles¡¡are
impossible¡¡with¡¡any¡¡type¡¡of¡¡plane£»¡¡and¡¡while¡¡some
have¡¡made¡¡higher¡¡speeds¡¡than¡¡eighty¡five¡¡miles¡¡it
may¡¡be¡¡safe¡¡to¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡such¡¡flights¡¡took¡¡place
under¡¡conditions¡¡where¡¡the¡¡wind¡¡contributed¡¡to
the¡¡movement¡£
_Fig¡£¡¡32¡£¡¡Chart¡¡showing¡¡Range¡¡of¡¡Uses_
COMMERCIAL¡¡UTILITY¡£Before¡¡machines¡¡can¡¡be
used¡¡successfully¡¡they¡¡must¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡attain
slower¡¡speeds¡£¡¡Alighting¡¡is¡¡the¡¡danger¡¡factor¡£
Speed¡¡machines¡¡are¡¡dangerous£»¡¡not¡¡in¡¡flight¡¡or
at¡¡high¡¡speeds£»¡¡but¡¡when¡¡attempting¡¡to¡¡land¡£¡¡A
large¡¡plane¡¡surface¡¡is¡¡incompatible¡¡with¡¡speed£»
which¡¡is¡¡another¡¡illustration¡¡that¡¡at¡¡high¡¡velocities
supporting¡¡surfaces¡¡are¡¡not¡¡necessary¡£
Commercial¡¡uses¡¡require¡¡safety¡¡as¡¡the¡¡first¡¡element£»
and¡¡reliability¡¡as¡¡the¡¡next¡¡essential¡£¡¡For
passenger¡¡service¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡an¡¡assurance¡¡that
it¡¡will¡¡not¡¡overturn£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡in¡¡landing¡¡danger¡¡is
not¡¡ever¡present¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡carrying¡¡of¡¡freight¡¡interrupted
service¡¡will¡¡militate¡¡against¡¡it¡£
How¡¡few¡¡are¡¡the¡¡attempts¡¡to¡¡solve¡¡the¡¡problem
of¡¡decreased¡¡speed£»¡¡and¡¡what¡¡an¡¡eager£»¡¡restless
campaign¡¡is¡¡being¡¡waged¡¡to¡¡go¡¡faster¡¡and¡¡faster£»
and¡¡the¡¡addition¡¡of¡¡every¡¡mile¡¡above¡¡the¡¡record
is¡¡hailed¡¡as¡¡another¡¡illustration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡perfection
£¨£¿£©¡¡of¡¡the¡¡flying¡¡machine¡£
To¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡navigate¡¡a¡¡machine¡¡at¡¡ten£»¡¡or¡¡fifteen
miles¡¡an¡¡hour£»¡¡would¡¡scarcely¡¡be¡¡interesting
enough¡¡to¡¡merit¡¡a¡¡paragraph£»¡¡but¡¡such¡¡an¡¡accomplishment
would¡¡be¡¡of¡¡far¡¡more¡¡value¡¡than¡¡all¡¡of
Pequod's¡¡feats£»¡¡and¡¡be¡¡more¡¡far¡reaching¡¡in¡¡its
effects¡¡than¡¡a¡¡flight¡¡of¡¡two¡¡hundred¡¡miles¡¡per¡¡hour¡£
CHAPTER¡¡VIII
KITES¡¡AND¡¡GLIDERS
KITES¡¡are¡¡of¡¡very¡¡ancient¡¡origin£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡China£»
Japan£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Malayan¡¡Peninsula£»¡¡they¡¡have¡¡been
used¡¡for¡¡many¡¡years¡¡as¡¡toys£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purposes
of¡¡exhibiting¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡men£»¡¡animals£»¡¡and¡¡particularly
dragons£»¡¡in
СÌáʾ£º°´ »Ø³µ [Enter] ¼ü ·µ»ØÊéÄ¿£¬°´ ¡û ¼ü ·µ»ØÉÏÒ»Ò³£¬ °´ ¡ú ¼ü ½øÈëÏÂÒ»Ò³¡£
ÔÞÒ»ÏÂ
Ìí¼ÓÊéÇ©¼ÓÈëÊé¼Ü