n one's estate；a right which seemed to them equitable； because it was common；involves the right to transfer； sell； give； gain； and lose it； that it tends； consequently； to nothing less than the destruction of that equality which they established it to maintain。 And though they should have foreseen it； they disregarded it； the present want occupied their whole attention； and； as ordinarily happens in such cases； the disadvantages were at first scarcely perceptible； and they passed unnoticed。
They did not foresee； these ingenuous legislators； that if property is retainable by intent alone_nudo animo_it carries with it the right to let； to lease； to loan at interest； to profit by exchange； to settle annuities； and to levy a tax on a field which intent reserves； while the body is busy elsewhere。
They did not foresee； these fathers of our jurisprudence； that； if the right of inheritance is any thing other than Nature's method of preserving equality of wealth； families will soon become victims of the most disastrous exclusions； and society； pierced to the heart by one of its most sacred principles； will come to its death through opulence and misery。＇1＇
＇1＇ Here； especially； the simplicity of our ancestors appears in all its rudeness。 After having made first cousins heirs； where there were no legitimate children； they could not so divide the property between two different branches as to prevent the simultaneous existence of extreme wealth and extreme poverty in the same family。 For example：
James； dying； leaves two sons； Peter and John； heirs of his fortune： James's property is divided equally between them。 But Peter has only one daughter； while John； his brother； leaves six sons。 It is clear that； to be true to the principle of equality； and at the same time to that of heredity； the two estates must be divided in seven equal portions among the children of Peter and John； for otherwise a stranger might marry Peter's daughter； and by this alliance half of the property of James； the grandfather； would be transferred to another family； which is contrary to the principle of heredity。 Furthermore； John's children would be poor on account of their number； while their cousin； being an only child； would be rich； which is contrary to the principle of equality。 If we extend this combined application of two principles apparently opposed to each other； we shall become convinced that the right of succession； which is assailed with so little wisdom in our day； is no obstacle to the maintenance of equality。
Under whatever form of government we live； it can always be said that _le mort saisit le vif；_ that is； that inheritance and succession will last for ever； whoever may be the recognized heir。 But the St。 Simonians wish the heir to be designated by the magistrate； others wish him to be chosen by the deceased； or assumed by the law to be so chosen： the essential point is that Nature's wish be satisfied； so far as the law of equality allows。
To…day the real controller of inheritance is chance or caprice； now； in matters of legislation； chance and caprice cannot be accepted as guides。 It is for the purpose of avoiding the manifold disturbances which follow in the wake of chance that Nature； after having created us equal； suggests to us the principle of heredity； which serves as a voice by which society asks us to choose； from among all our brothers； him whom we judge best fitted to complete our unfinished work。
They did not foresee。 。 。 。 But why need I go farther？
The consequences are plain enough； and this is not the time to criticise the whole Code。
The history of property among the ancient nations is； then； simply a matter of research and curiosity。 It is a rule of jurisprudence that the fact does not substantiate the right。 Now； property is no exception to this rule： then the universal recognition of the right of property does not legitimate the right of property。 Man is mistaken as to the constitution of society； the nature of right； and the application of justice； just as he was mistaken regarding the cause of meteors and the movement of the heavenly bodies。 His old opinions cannot be taken for articles of faith。 Of what consequence is it to us that the Indian race was divided into four classes； that； on the banks of the Nile and the Ganges； blood and position formerly determined the distribution of the land； that the Greeks and Romans placed property under the protection of the gods； that they accompanied with religious ceremonies the work of partitioning the land and appraising their goods？ The variety of the forms of privilege does not sanction injustice。 The faith of Jupiter； the proprietor；＇1＇ proves no more against the equality of citizens； than do the mysteries of Venus； the wanton； against conjugal chastity。
＇1＇ _Zeus klesios_。
The authority of the human race is of no effect as evidence in favor of the right of property； because this right； resting of necessity upon equality； contradicts its principle； the decision of the religions which have sanctioned it is of no effect； because in all ages the priest has submitted to the prince； and the gods have always spoken as the politicians desired； the social advantages； attributed to property； cannot be cited in its behalf； because they all spring from the principle of equality of possession。
What means； then； this dithyramb upon property？
〃The right of property is the most important of human institutions。〃 。 。 。
Yes； as monarchy is the most glorious。
〃The original cause of man's prosperity upon earth。〃
Because justice was supposed to be its principle。
〃Property became the legitimate end of his ambition； the hope of his existence； the shelter of his family； in a word； the corner… stone of the domestic dwelling； of communities； and of the political State。〃
Possession alone produced all that。
〃Eternal principle；〃
Property is eternal； like every negation；
〃Of all social and civil institutions。〃
For that reason； every institution and every law based on property will perish。
〃It is a boon as precious as liberty。〃
For the rich proprietor。
〃In fact； the cause of the cultivation of the habitable earth。〃
If the cultivator ceased to be a tenant； would the land be worse cared for？
〃The guarantee and the morality of labor。〃
Under the regime of property； labor is not a condition； but a privilege。
〃The application of justice。〃
What is justice without equality of fortunes？ A balance with false weights。
〃All morality；〃
A famished stomach knows no morality；
〃All public order；〃
Certainly； the preservation of property；
〃Rest on the right of property。〃＇1＇
＇1 Giraud； 〃Investigations into the Right of Property among the Romans。〃
Corner…stone of all which is； stumbling…block of all which ought to be；such is property。
To sum up and conclude：
Not only does occupation lead to equality； it PREVENTS property。 For； since every man； from the fact of his existence； has the right of occupation； and； in order to live； must have material for cultivation on which he may labor； and since； on the other hand； the number of occupants varies continually with the births and deaths；it follows that the quantity of material which each laborer may claim varies with the number of occupants； consequently； that occupation is always subordinate to population。 Finally； that； inasmuch as possession； in right； can never remain fixed； it is impossible； in fact； that it can ever become property。
Every occupant is； then； necessarily a possessor or usufructuary；a function which excludes proprietorship。 Now； this is the right of the usufructuary： he is responsible for the thing entrusted to him； he must use it in conformity with general utility； with a view to its preservation and development； he has no power to transform it； to diminish it； or to change its nature； he cannot so divide the usufruct that another shall perform the labor while he receives the product。 In a word； the usufructuary is under the supervision of society； submitted to the condition of labor and the law of equality。
Thus is annihilated the Roman definition of propertyTHE RIGHT OF USE AND ABUSEan immorality born of violence； the most monstrous pretension that the civil laws ever sanctioned。 Man receives his usufruct from the hands of society； which alone is the permanent possessor。 The individual passes away； society is deathless。
What a profound disgust fills my soul while discussing such simple truths ！ Do we doubt these things to…day？ Will it be necessary to again take arms for their triumph？ And can force； in default of reason； alone introduce them into our laws？
ALL HAVE AN EQUAL RIGHT OF OCCUPANCY。
THE AMOUNT OCCUPIED BEING MEASURED； NOT BY THE WILL； BUT BY THE VARIABLE CONDITIONS OF SPACE AND NUMBER； PROPERTY CANNOT EXIST。
This no code has ever expressed； this no constitution can admit！ These are axioms which the civil law and the law of nations deny！ 。 。 。 。 。
But I hear the exclamations of the partisans of another system： 〃Labor； labor！ that is the basis of property！〃
Reader； do not be deceived。 This new basis of property is worse than the first； and I shall soon have to ask your pardon for having demonstrated things clearer； and refuted pretensions more unjust； than any which we have yet considered。
CHAPTER III。 LABOR AS THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF THE DOMAIN OF PROPERTY。
Nearly all the modern writers on jurisprudence； taking their cue from the economists； have abandoned the theory of first occupancy as a too dangerous one； and have adopted that which regards property as born of labor。 In this they are deluded； they reason in a circle。 To labor it is necessary to occupy； says M。 Cousin。
Consequently； I have added in my turn； all having an equal right of occupancy； to labor it is necessary to submit to equality。 〃The rich；〃 exclaims Jean Jacques； 〃have the arrogance to say； ‘I built this wall； I earned this land by my labor。' Who set you the tasks？ we may reply； and by what right do you demand payment from us for labor which we did not impose upon you？〃 All sophistry falls to the ground in the presence of this argument。
But the partisans