ify his violence by the motto of the hero and the brigand。
From the right of the strongest springs the exploitation of man by man； or bondage； usury； or the tribute levied upon the conquered by the conqueror； and the whole numerous family of taxes； duties； monarchical prerogatives； house…rents； farm…rents； &c。； in one word；property。
Force was followed by artifice； the second manifestation of justice； which was detested by the ancient heroes； who； not excelling in that direction； were heavy losers by it。 Force was still employed； but mental force instead of physical。 Skill in deceiving an enemy by treacherous propositions seemed deserving of reward； nevertheless； the strong always prided themselves upon their honesty。 In those days； oaths were observed and promises kept according to the letter rather than the spirit： _Uti lingua nuncupassit； ita jus esto_；〃As the tongue has spoken； so must the right be；〃 says the law of the Twelve Tables。 Artifice； or rather perfidy； was the main element in the politics of ancient Rome。 Among other examples； Vico cites the following； also quoted by Montesquieu： The Romans had guaranteed to the Carthaginians the preservation of their goods and their CITY； intentionally using the word civitas； that is； the society； the State； the Carthaginians； on the contrary； understood them to mean the material city； urbs； and accordingly began to rebuild their walls。 They were immediately attacked on account of their violation of the treaty； by the Romans； who； acting upon the old heroic idea of right； did not imagine that； in taking advantage of an equivocation to surprise their enemies； they were waging unjust war。
From artifice sprang the profits of manufactures； commerce； and banking； mercantile frauds； and pretensions which are honored with the beautiful names of TALENT and GENIUS； but which ought to be regarded as the last degree of knavery and deception； and； finally； all sorts of social inequalities。
In those forms of robbery which are prohibited by law； force and artifice are employed alone and undisguised； in the authorized forms； they conceal themselves within a useful product； which they use as a tool to plunder their victim。
The direct use of violence and stratagem was early and universally condemned； but no nation has yet got rid of that kind of robbery which acts through talent； labor； and possession； and which is the source of all the dilemmas of casuistry and the innumerable contradictions of jurisprudence。
The right of force and the right of artificeglorified by the rhapsodists in the poems of the 〃Iliad〃 and the 〃Odyssey〃 inspired the legislation of the Greeks and Romans； from which they passed into our morals and codes。 Christianity has not changed at all。 The Gospel should not be blamed； because the priests； as stupid as the legists； have been unable either to expound or to understand it。 The ignorance of councils and popes upon all questions of morality is equal to that of the market… place and the money…changers； and it is this utter ignorance of right； justice； and society； which is killing the Church； and discrediting its teachings for ever。 The infidelity of the Roman church and other Christian churches is flagrant； all have disregarded the precept of Jesus； all have erred in moral and doctrinal points； all are guilty of teaching false and absurd dogmas； which lead straight to wickedness and murder。 Let it ask pardon of God and men；this church which called itself infallible； and which has grown so corrupt in morals； let its reformed sisters humble themselves； 。 。 。 and the people； undeceived； but still religious and merciful； will begin to think。＇1＇
＇1＇ 〃I preach the Gospel； I live by the Gospel；〃 said the Apostle； meaning thereby that he lived by his labor。 The Catholic clergy prefer to live by property。 The struggles in the communes of the middle ages between the priests and bishops and the large proprietors and seigneurs are famous。 The papal excommunications fulminated in defence of ecclesiastical revenues are no less so。 Even to…day； the official organs of the Gallican clergy still maintain that the pay received by the clergy is not a salary； but an indemnity for goods of which they were once proprietors； and which were taken from them in '89 by the Third Estate。 The clergy prefer to live by the right of increase rather than by labor。
One of the main causes of Ireland's poverty to…day is the immense revenues of the English clergy。 So heretics and orthodox Protestants and Papistscannot reproach each other。 All have strayed from the path of justice； all have disobeyed the eighth commandment of the Decalogue： 〃Thou shalt not steal。〃
The development of right has followed the same order； in its various expressions； that property has in its forms。 Every where we see justice driving robbery before it and confining it within narrower and narrower limits。 Hitherto the victories of justice over injustice； and of equality over inequality； have been won by instinct and the simple force of things； but the final triumph of our social nature will be due to our reason； or else we shall fall back into feudal chaos。 Either this glorious height is reserved for our intelligence； or this miserable depth for our baseness。
The second effect of property is despotism。 Now； since despotism is inseparably connected with the idea of legitimate authority； in explaining the natural causes of the first； the principle of the second will appear。
What is to be the form of government in the future？ hear some of my younger readers reply： 〃Why； how can you ask such a question？
You are a republican。〃 〃A republican！ Yes； but that word specifies nothing。 _Res publica；_ that is； the public thing。 Now； whoever is interested in public affairsno matter under what form of governmentmay call himself a republican。 Even kings are republicans。〃
〃Well！ you are a democrat？〃〃No。〃〃What！ you would have a monarchy。〃〃No。〃〃A constitutionalist？〃〃God forbid！〃〃You are then an aristocrat？〃〃Not at all。〃〃You want a mixed government？〃〃Still less。〃〃What are you； then？〃〃I am an anarchist。〃
〃Oh！ I understand you； you speak satirically。 This is a hit at the government。〃〃By no means。 I have just given you my serious and well…considered profession of faith。 Although a firm friend of order； I am （in the full force of the term） an anarchist。 Listen to me。〃
In all species of sociable animals； 〃the weakness of the young is the principle of their obedience to the old； who are strong； and from habit； which is a kind of conscience with them； the power remains with the oldest； although he finally becomes the weakest。
Whenever the society is under the control of a chief； this chief is almost always the oldest of the troop。 I say almost always； because the established order may be disturbed by violent outbreaks。 Then the authority passes to another； and； having been re…established by force； it is again maintained by habit。 Wild horses go in herds： they have a chief who marches at their head； whom they confidently follow； and who gives the signal for flight or battle。
〃The sheep which we have raised follows us； but it follows in company with the flock in the midst of which it was born。 It regards man AS THE CHIEF OF ITS FLOCK。 。 。 。 Man is regarded by domestic animals as a member of theIr society。 All that he has to do is to get himself accepted by them as an associate： he soon becomes their chief； in consequence of his superior intelligence。 He does not； then； change the NATURAL CONDITION of these animals； as Buffon has said。 On the contrary； he uses this natural condition to his own advantage； in other words； he finds SOCIABLE animals； and renders them DOMESTIC by becoming their associate and chief。 Thus； the DOMESTICITY of animals is only a special condition； a simple modification； a definitive consequence of their SOCIABILITY。 All domestic animals are by nature sociable animals。〃 。 。 。Flourens： Summary of the Observations of F。 Cuvier。
Sociable animals follow their chief by INSTINCT； but take notice of the fact （which F。 Cuvier omitted to state）； that the function of the chief is altogether one of INTELLIGENCE。 The chief does not teach the others to associate； to unite under his lead； to reproduce their kind； to take to flight； or to defend themselves。 Concerning each of these particulars； his subordinates are as well informed as he。 But it is the chief who； by his accumulated experience； provides against accidents； he it is whose private intelligence supplements； in difficult situations； the general instinct； he it is who deliberates； decides； and leads； he it is； in short； whose enlightened prudence regulates the public routine for the greatest good of all。
Man （naturally a sociable being） naturally follows a chief。 Originally； the chief is the father； the patriarch； the elder； in other words； the good and wise man； whose functions； consequently； are exclusively of a reflective and intellectual nature。 The human racelike all other races of sociable animalshas its instincts； its innate faculties； its general ideas； and its categories of sentiment and reason。 Its chiefs； legislators； or kings have devised nothing； supposed nothing； imagined nothing。 They have only guided society by their accumulated experience； always however in conformity with opinions and beliefs。
Those philosophers who （carrying into morals and into history their gloomy and factious whims） affirm that the human race had originally neither chiefs nor kings； know nothing of the nature of man。 Royalty； and absolute royalty； isas truly and more truly than democracya primitive form of government。 Perceiving that； in the remotest ages； crowns and kingships were worn by heroes； brigands； and knight…errants； they confound the two things；royalty and despotism。 But royalty dates from the creation of man； it existed in the age of negative communism。 Ancient heroism （and the despotism which it engendered） commenced only with the first manifestation of the idea of justice； that is； with the reign of force。 As soon as the strongest； in the comparison of merits； was decided to be the best； the oldest had to abandon his position； and royalty became despotic。
The spontaneous； instinc