art。 Accordingly； property； which this legislator wrongly confounded with wealth； reentered the city together with the swarm of evils which he was endeavoring to banish； and this time Sparta was hopelessly corrupted。
〃The introduction of wealth；〃 says M。 Pastoret； 〃was one of the principal causes of the misfortunes which they experienced。 Against these； however； the laws had taken extraordinary precautions； the best among which was the inculcation of morals which tended to suppress desire。〃
The best of all precautions would have been the anticipation of desire by satisfaction。 Possession is the sovereign remedy for cupidity； a remedy which would have been the less perilous to Sparta because fortunes there were almost equal； and conditions were nearly alike。 As a general thing； fasting and abstinence are bad teachers of moderation。
〃There was a law；〃 says M。 Pastoret again； 〃to prohibit the rich from wearing better clothing than the poor； from eating more delicate food； and from owning elegant furniture； vases； carpets； fine houses；〃 &c。 Lycurgus hoped； then； to maintain equality by rendering wealth useless。 How much wiser he would have been if； in accordance with his military discipline； he had organized industry and taught the people to procure by their own labor the things which he tried in vain to deprive them of。 In that case； enjoying happy thoughts and pleasant feelings； the citizen would have known no other desire than that with which the legislator endeavored to inspire him；love of honor and glory； the triumphs of talent and virtue。
〃Gold and all kinds of ornaments were forbidden the women。〃 Absurd。 After the death of Lycurgus； his institutions became corrupted； and four centuries before the Christian era not a vestige remained of the former simplicity。 Luxury and the thirst for gold were early developed among the Spartans in a degree as intense as might have been expected from their enforced poverty and their inexperience in the arts。 Historians have accused Pausanias； Lysander； Agesilaus； and others of having corrupted the morals of their country by the introduction of wealth obtained in war。 It is a slander。 The morals of the Spartans necessarily grew corrupt as soon as the Lacedaemonian poverty came in contact with Persian luxury and Athenian elegance。 Lycurgus； then； made a fatal mistake in attempting to inspire generosity and modesty by enforcing vain and proud simplicity。
〃Lycurgus was not frightened at idleness！ A Lacedemonian； happening to be in Athens （where idleness was forbidden） during the punishment of a citizen who had been found guilty； asked to see the Athenian thus condemned for having exercised the rights of a free man。 。 。 。 It was one of the principles of Lycurguss； acted upon for several centuries； that free men should not follow lucrative professions。 。 。 。 The women disdained domestic labor； they did not spin their wool themselves； as did the other Greeks ＇they did not； then； read Homer！＇； they left their slaves to make their clothing for them。〃Pastoret： History of Legislation。
Could any thing be more contradictory？ Lycurgus proscribed property among the citizens； and founded the means of subsistence on the worst form of property；on property obtained by force。 What wonder； after that； that a lazy city； where no industry was carried on； became a den of avarice？ The Spartans succumbed the more easily to the allurements of luxury and Asiatic voluptuousness； being placed entirely at their mercy by their own coarseness。 The same thing happened to the Romans； when military success took them out of Italy；a thing which the author of the prosopopoeia of Fabricius could not explain。 It is not the cultivation of the arts which corrupts morals； but their degradation； induced by inactive and luxurious opulence。 The instinct of property is to make the industry of Daedalus； as well as the talent of Phidias； subservient to its own fantastic whims and disgraceful pleasures。 Property； not wealth； ruined the Spartans。
When Solon appeared； the anarchy caused by property was at its height in the Athenian republic。 〃The inhabitants of Attica were divided among themselves as to the form of government。 Those who lived on the mountains （the poor） preferred the popular form； those of the plain （the middle class）； the oligarchs； those by the sea coast； a mixture of oligarchy and democracy。 Other dissensions were arising from the inequality of fortunes。 The mutual antagonism of the rich and poor had become so violent； that the one…man power seemed the only safe…guard against the revolution with which the republic was threatened。〃 （Pastoret： History of Legislation。）
Quarrels between the rich and the poor； which seldom occur in monarchies； because a well established power suppresses dissensions； seem to be the life of popular governments。 Aristotle had noticed this。 The oppression of wealth submitted to agrarian laws； or to excessive taxation； the hatred of the lower classes for the upper class； which is exposed always to libellous charges made in hopes of confiscation；these were the features of the Athenian government which were especially revolting to Aristotle； and which caused him to favor a limited monarchy。 Aristotle； if he had lived in our day； would have supported the constitutional government。 But； with all deference to the Stagirite； a government which sacrifices the life of the proletaire to that of the proprietor is quite as irrational as one which supports the former by robbing the latter； neither of them deserve the support of a free man； much less of a philosopher。
Solon followed the example of Lycurgus。 He celebrated his legislative inauguration by the abolition of debts；that is； by bankruptcy。 In other words； Solon wound up the governmental machine for a longer or shorter time depending upon the rate of interest。 Consequently； when the spring relaxed and the chain became unwound； the republic had either to perish； or to recover itself by a second bankruptcy。 This singular policy was pursued by all the ancients。 After the captivity of Babylon； Nehemiah； the chief of the Jewish nation； abolished debts； Lycurgus abolished debts； Solon abolished debts； the Roman people； after the expulsion of the kings until the accession of the Caesars； struggled with the Senate for the abolition of debts。 Afterwards； towards the end of the republic； and long after the establishment of the empire； agriculture being abandoned； and the provinces becoming depopulated in consequence of the excessive rates of interest； the emperors freely granted the lands to whoever would cultivate them；that is； they abolished debts。 No one； except Lycurgus； who went to the other extreme； ever perceived that the great point was； not to release debtors by a coup d'etat； but to prevent the contraction of debts in future。
On the contrary； the most democratic governments were always exclusively based upon individual property； so that the social element of all these republics was war between the citizens。
Solon decreed that a census should be taken of all fortunes； regulated political rights by the result； granted to the larger proprietors more influence； established the balance of powers； in a word； inserted in the constitution the most active leaven of discord； as if； instead of a legislator chosen by the people； he had been their greatest enemy。 Is it not； indeed； the height of imprudence to grant equality of political rights to men of unequal conditions？ If a manufacturer； uniting all his workmen in a joint…stock company； should give to each of them a consultative and deliberative voice；that is； should make all of them masters；would this equality of mastership secure continued inequality of wages？ That is the whole political system of Solon； reduced to its simplest expression。
〃In giving property a just preponderance；〃 says M。 Pastoret； 〃Solon repaired； as far as he was able； his first official act； the abolition of debts。 。 。 。 He thought he owed it to public peace to make this great sacrifice of acquired rights and natural equity。 But the violation of individual property and written contracts is a bad preface to a public code。〃
In fact； such violations are always cruelly punished。 In '89 and '93； the possessions of the nobility and the clergy were confiscated； the clever proletaires were enriched； and to…day the latter； having become aristocrats； are making us pay dearly for our fathers' robbery。 What； therefore； is to be done now？ It is not for us to violate right； but to restore it。 Now； it would be a violation of justice to dispossess some and endow others； and then stop there。 We must gradually lower the rate of interest； organize industry； associate laborers and their functions； and take a census of the large fortunes； not for the purpose of granting privileges； but that we may effect their redemption by settling a life…annuity upon their proprietors。 We must apply on a large scale the principle of collective production； give the State eminent domain over all capital！ make each producer responsible； abolish the custom…house； and transform every profession and trade into a public function。 Thereby large fortunes will vanish without confiscation or violence； individual possession will establish itself； without communism； under the inspection of the republic； and equality of conditions will no longer depend simply on the will of citizens。
Of the authors who have written upon the Romans； Bossuet and Montesquieu occupy prominent positions in the first rank； the first being generally regarded as the father of the philosophy of history； and the second as the most profound writer upon law and politics。 Nevertheless； it could be shown that these two great writers； each of them imbued with the prejudices of their century and their cloth； have left the question of the causes of the rise and fall of the Romans precisely where they found it。
Bossuet is admirable as long as he confines himself to description： witness； among other passages； the picture which he has given us of Greece before the Persian War； and which seems to have inspired 〃Telemachus；〃 the parallel between Athens and Sparta； drawn twenty times since Bossuet； the description of the character and