which they paid to the proprietors；_foeneratoribus；_ that the republic； administered for the benefit of the nobles； did nothing for the people； that； delivered over to the mercy of their creditors； who could sell them and their children； and having neither hearth nor home； they were refused the means of subsistence； while the rate of interest was kept at its highest point； &c。 For five centuries； the sole policy of the Senate was to evade these just complaints； and； notwithstanding the energy of the tribunes； notwithstanding the eloquence of the Gracchi； the violence of Marius； and the triumph of Caesar； this execrable policy succeeded only too well。 The Senate always temporized； the measures proposed by the tribunes might be good； but they were inopportune。 It admitted that something should be done； but first it was necessary that the people should resume the performance of their duties； because the Senate could not yield to violence； and force must be employed only by the law。 If the peopleout of respect for legalitytook this beautiful advice； the Senate conjured up a difficulty； the reform was postponed； and that was the end of it。 On the contrary； if the demands of the proletaires became too pressing； it declared a foreign war； and neighboring nations were deprived of their liberty； to maintain the Roman aristocracy。
But the toils of war were only a halt for the plebeians in their onward march towards pauperism。 The lands confiscated from the conquered nations were immediately added to the domain of the State； to the ager publicus； and； as such； cultivated for the benefit of the treasury； or； as was more often the case； they were sold at auction。 None of them were granted to the proletaires； who； unlike the patricians and knights； were not supplied by the victory with the means of buying them。 War never enriched the soldier； the extensive plundering has been done always by the generals。 The vans of Augereau； and of twenty others； are famous in our armies； but no one ever heard of a private getting rich。 Nothing was more common in Rome than charges of peculation； extortion； embezzlement； and brigandage； carried on in the provinces at the head of armies； and in other public capacities。 All these charges were quieted by intrigue； bribery of the judges； or desistance of the accuser。 The culprit was allowed always in the end to enjoy his spoils in peace； his son was only the more respected on account of his father's crimes。 And； in fact； it could not be otherwise。 What would become of us； if every deputy； peer； or public functionary should be called upon to show his title to his fortune！
〃The patricians arrogated the exclusive enjoyment of the ager publicus； and； like the feudal seigniors； granted some portions of their lands to their dependants；a wholly precarious concession； revocable at the will of the grantor。 The plebeians； on the contrary； were entitled to the enjoyment of only a little pasture…land left to them in common： an utterly unjust state of things； since； in consequence of it； taxation_census_weighed more heavily upon the poor than upon the rich。 The patrician； in fact； always exempted himself from the tithe which he owed as the price and as the acknowledgment of the concession of domain； and； on the other hand； paid no taxes on his POSSESSIONS； if； as there is good reason to believe； only citizens' property was taxed。〃Laboulaye： History of Property。
In order thoroughly to understand the preceding quotation； we must know that the estates of CITIZENSthat is； estates independent of the public domain； whether they were obtained in the division of Numa； or had since been sold by the questors were alone regarded as PROPERTY； upon these a tax； or _cense_； was imposed。 On the contrary； the estates obtained by concessions of the public domain； of the ager publicus （for which a light rent was paid）； were called POSSESSIONS。 Thus； among the Romans； there was a RIGHT OF PROPERTY and a RIGHT OF POSSESSION regulating the administration of all estates。 Now； what did the proletaires wish？ That the jus possessionisthe simple right of possessionshould be extended to them at the expense； as is evident； not of private property； but of the public domain；agri publici。 The proletaires； in short； demanded that they should be tenants of the land which they had conquered。 This demand； the patricians in their avarice never would accede to。 Buying as much of this land as they could； they afterwards found means of obtaining the rest as POSSESSIONS。 Upon this land they employed their slaves。 The people； who could not buy； on account of the competition of the rich； nor hire； becausecultivating with their own handsthey could not promise a rent equal to the revenue which the land would yield when cultivated by slaves； were always deprived of possession and property。
Civil wars relieved； to some extent； the sufferings of the multitude。 〃The people enrolled themselves under the banners of the ambitious； in order to obtain by force that which the law refused them；property。 A colony was the reward of a victorious legion。 But it was no longer the ager publicus only； it was all Italy that lay at the mercy of the legions。 The ager publicus disappeared almost entirely； 。 。 。 but the cause of the evilaccumulated propertybecame more potent than ever。〃 （Laboulaye： History of Property。）
The author whom I quote does not tell us why this division of territory which followed civil wars did not arrest the encroachments of accumulated property； the omission is easily supplied。 Land is not the only requisite for cultivation； a working…stock is also necessary；animals； tools； harnesses； a house； an advance； &c。 Where did the colonists； discharged by the dictator who rewarded them； obtain these things？ From the purse of the usurers； that is； of the patricians； to whom all these lands finally returned； in consequence of the rapid increase of usury； and the seizure of estates。 Sallust； in his account of the conspiracy of Catiline； tells us of this fact。 The conspirators were old soldiers of Sylla； who； as a reward for their services； had received from him lands in Cisalpine Gaul； Tuscany； and other parts of the peninsula Less than twenty years had elapsed since these colonists； free of debt； had left the service and commenced farming； and already they were crippled by usury； and almost ruined。 The poverty caused by the exactions of creditors was the life of this conspiracy which well…nigh inflamed all Italy； and which； with a worthier chief and fairer means； possibly would have succeeded。 In Rome； the mass of the people were favorable to the conspirators_cuncta plebes Catilinae incepta probabat；_ the allies were weary of the patricians' robberies； deputies from the Allobroges （the Savoyards） had come to Rome to appeal to the Senate in behalf of their fellow…citizens involved in debt； in short； the complaint against the large proprietors was universal。 〃We call men and gods to witness；〃 said the soldiers of Catiline； who were Roman citizens with not a slave among them； 〃that we have taken arms neither against the country； nor to attack any one； but in defence of our lives and liberties。 Wretched； poor； most of us deprived of country； all of us of fame and fortune； by the violence and cruelty of usurers； we have no rights； no property； no liberty。〃＇1＇
｛NOTE： footnote needs spell…checked｝ ＇1＇ _Dees hominesque testamur； nos arma neque contra patriam cepisse neque quo periculum aliis faceremus； sed uti corpora nostra ab injuria tuta forent； qui miseri； egentes； violentia atque crudelitate foeneraterum； plerique patriae； sed omncsfarna atque fortunis expertes sumus； neque cuiquam nostrum licuit； more majorum； lege uti； neque； amisso patrimonio； libferum corpus habere。_Sallus： Bellum Catilinarium。
The bad reputation of Catiline； and his atrocious designs； the imprudence of his accomplices； the treason of several； the strategy of Cicero； the angry outbursts of Cato； and the terror of the Senate； baffled this enterprise； which； in furnishing a precedent for expeditions against the rich； would perhaps have saved the republic； and given peace to the world。 But Rome could not evade her destiny； the end of her expiations had not come。 A nation never was known to anticipate its punishment by a sudden and unexpected conversion。 Now； the long…continued crimes of the Eternal City could not be atoned for by the massacre of a few hundred patricians。 Catiline came to stay divine vengeance； therefore his conspiracy failed。
The encroachment of large proprietors upon small proprietors； by the aid of usury； farm…rent； and profits of all sorts； was common throughout the empire。 The most honest citizens invested their money at high rates of interest。＇1＇ Cato； Cicero； Brutus； all the stoics so noted for their frugality； _viri frugi_； Seneca； the teacher of virtue；levied enormous taxes in the provinces； under the name of usury； and it is something remarkable； that the last defenders of the republic； the proud Pompeys； were all usurious aristocrats； and oppressors of the poor。 But the battle of Pharsalus； having killed men only； without touching institutions； the encroachments of the large domains became every day more active。 Ever since the birth of Christianity； the Fathers have opposed this invasion with all their might。 Their writings are filled with burning curses upon this crime of usury； of which Christians are not always innocent。
＇1＇ Fifty； sixty； and eighty per cent。Course of M。 Blanqui。
St。 Cyprian complains of certain bishops of his time； who； absorbed in disgraceful stock…jobbing operations； abandoned their churches； and went about the provinces appropriating lands by artifice and fraud； while lending money and piling up interests upon interests。＇1＇ Why； in the midst of this passion for accumulation； did not the possession of the public land； like private property； become concentrated in a few hands？
｛NOTE： footnote needs spell…checked｝ ＇1＇ _Episcopi plurimi； quos et hortamento esse oportet caeteris et exemplo； divina prouratione contempta； procuratores rerum saeularium fieri； derelicta cathedra； plebe leserta； per alienas provincias oberrantes； negotiationis quaestuosae nundinas au uucu…；