aved his adversary。 The Roman wanted matter； the Barbarian wanted man。 Consequently； in the feudal ages； rents were almost nothing；simply a hare； a partridge； a pie； a few pints of wine brought by a little girl； or a Maypole set up within the suzerain's reach。 In return； the vassal or incumbent had to follow the seignior to battle （a thing which happened almost every day）； and equip and feed himself at his own expense。 〃This spirit of the German tribesthis spirit of companionship and associationgoverned the territory as it governed individuals。 The lands； like the men； were secured to a chief or seignior by a bond of mutual protection and fidelity。 This subjection was the labor of the German epoch which gave birth to feudalism。 By fair means or foul； every proprietor who could not be a chief was forced to be a vassal。〃 （Laboulaye： History of Property。）
By fair means or foul； every mechanic who cannot be a master has to be a journeyman； every proprietor who is not an invader will be invaded； every producer who cannot； by the exploitation of other men； furnish products at less than their proper value； will lose his labor。 Corporations and masterships； which are hated so bitterly； but which will reappear if we are not careful； are the necessary results of the principle of competition which is inherent in property； their organization was patterned formerly after that of the feudal hierarchy； which was the result of the subordination of men and possessions。
The times which paved the way for the advent of feudalism and the reappearance of large proprietors were times of carnage and the most frightful anarchy。 Never before had murder and violence made such havoc with the human race。 The tenth century； among others； if my memory serves me rightly； was called the CENTURY OF IRON。 His property； his life； and the honor of his wife and children always in danger the small proprietor made haste to do homage to his seignior； and to bestow something on the church of his freehold； that he might receive protection and security。
〃Both facts and laws bear witness that from the sixth to the tenth century the proprietors of small freeholds were gradually plundered； or reduced by the encroachments of large proprietors and counts to the condition of either vassals or tributaries。 The Capitularies are full of repressive provisions； but the incessant reiteration of these threats only shows the perseverance of the evil and the impotency of the government。 Oppression； moreover； varies but little in its methods。 The complaints of the free proprietors； and the groans of the plebeians at the time of the Gracchi； were one and the same。 It is said that； whenever a poor man refused to give his estate to the bishop； the curate； the count； the judge； or the centurion； these immediately sought an opportunity to ruin him。 They made him serve in the army until； completely ruined； he was induced； by fair means or foul； to give up his freehold。〃Laboulaye： History of Property。
How many small proprietors and manufacturers have not been ruined by large ones through chicanery； law…suits； and competition？ Strategy； violence； and usury；such are the proprietor's methods of plundering the laborer。
Thus we see property； at all ages and in all its forms； oscillating by virtue of its principle between two opposite terms；extreme division and extreme accumulation。
Property； at its first term； is almost null。 Reduced to personal exploitation； it is property only potentially。 At its second term； it exists in its perfection； then it is truly property。
When property is widely distributed； society thrives； progresses； grows； and rises quickly to the zenith of its power。 Thus； the Jews； after leaving Babylon with Esdras and Nehemiah； soon became richer and more powerful than they had been under their kings。 Sparta was in a strong and prosperous condition during the two or three centuries which followed the death of Lycurgus。 The best days of Athens were those of the Persian war； Rome； whose inhabitants were divided from the beginning into two classes； the exploiters and the exploited；knew no such thing as peace。
When property is concentrated； society； abusing itself； polluted； so to speak； grows corrupt； wears itself outhow shall I express this horrible idea？plunges into long…continued and fatal luxury。
When feudalism was established； society had to die of the same disease which killed it under the Caesars；I mean accumulated property。 But humanity； created for an immortal destiny； is deathless； the revolutions which disturb it are purifying crises； invariably followed by more vigorous health。 In the fifth century； the invasion of the Barbarians partially restored the world to a state of natural equality。 In the twelfth century； a new spirit pervading all society gave the slave his rights； and through justice breathed new life into the heart of nations。 It has been said； and often repeated； that Christianity regenerated the world。 That is true； but it seems to me that there is a mistake in the date。 Christianity had no influence upon Roman society； when the Barbarians came； that society had disappeared。 For such is God's curse upon property； every political organization based upon the exploitation of man 。 shall perish： slave…labor is death to the race of tyrants。 The patrician families became extinct； as the feudal families did； and as all aristocracies must。
It was in the middle ages； when a reactionary movement was beginning to secretly undermine accumulated property； that the influence of Christianity was first exercised to its full extent。
The destruction of feudalism； the conversion of the serf into the commoner； the emancipation of the communes； and the admission of the Third Estate to political power； were deeds accomplished by Christianity exclusively。 I say Christianity； not ecclesiasticism； for the priests and bishops were themselves large proprietors； and as such often persecuted the villeins。 Without the Christianity of the middle ages； the existence of modern society could not be explained； and would not be possible。
The truth of this assertion is shown by the very facts which M。 Laboulaye quotes； although this author inclines to the opposite opinion。＇1＇
＇1＇ M。 Guizot denies that Christianity alone is entitled to the glory of the abolition of slavery。 〃To this end；〃 he says； 〃many causes were necessary；the evolution of other ideas and other principles of civilization。〃 So general an assertion cannot be refuted。 Some of these ideas and causes should have been pointed out； that we might judge whether their source was not wholly Christian； or whether at least the Christian spirit had not penetrated and thus fructified them。 Most of the emancipation charters begin with these words： 〃For the love of God and the salvation of my soul。〃
Now； we did not commence to love God and to think of our salvation until after the promulgation of the Gospel。
1。 Slavery among the Romans。〃The Roman slave was； in the eyes of the law； only a thing；no more than an ox or a horse。 He had neither property； family； nor personality； he was defenceless against his master's cruelty； folly； or cupidity。 ‘Sell your oxen that are past use；' said Cato； ‘sell your calves； your lambs； your wool； your hides； your old ploughs； your old iron； your old slave； and your sick slave； and all that is of no use to you。' When no market could be found for the slaves that were worn out by sickness or old age； they were abandoned to starvation。 Claudius was the first defender of this shameful practice。〃
〃Discharge your old workman；〃 says the economist of the proprietary school； 〃turn off that sick domestic； that toothless and worn…out servant。 Put away the unserviceable beauty； to the hospital with the useless mouths！〃
〃The condition of these wretched beings improved but little under the emperors； and the best that can be said of the goodness of Antoninus is that he prohibited intolerable cruelty； as an ABUSE OF PROPERTY。 _Expedit enim reipublicae ne quis re re sua male utatur_； says Gaius。
〃As soon as the Church met in council； it launched an anathema against the masters who had exercised over their slaves this terrible right of life and death。 Were not the slaves； thanks to the right of sanctuary and to their poverty； the dearest proteges of religion？ Constantine； who embodied in the laws the grand ideas of Christianity； valued the life of a slave as highly as that of a freeman； and declared the master； who had intentionally brought death upon his slave； guilty of murder。 Between this law and that of Antoninus there is a complete revolution in moral ideas： the slave was a thing； religion has made him a man。〃
Note the last words： 〃Between the law of the Gospel and that of Antoninus there is a complete revolution in moral ideas： the slave was a thing； religion has made him a man。〃 The moral revolution which transformed the slave into a citizen was effected； then； by Christianity before the Barbarians set foot upon the soil of the empire。 We have only to trace the progress of this MORAL revolution in the PERSONNEL of society。 〃But；〃 M。 Laboulaye rightly says； 〃it did not change the condition of men in a moment； any more than that of things； between slavery and liberty there was an abyss which could not be filled in a day； the transitional step was servitude。〃
Now； what was servitude？ In what did it differ from Roman slavery； and whence came this difference？ Let the same author answer。
2。 Of servitude。〃I see； in the lord's manor； slaves charged with domestic duties。 Some are employed in the personal service of the master； others are charged with household cares。 The women spin the wool； the men grind the grain； make the bread； or practise； in the interest of the seignior； what little they know of the industrial arts。 The master punishes them when he chooses； kills them with impunity； and sells them and theirs like so many cattle。 The slave has no personality； and consequently no _wehrgeld_＇1＇ peculiar to himself： he is a thing。 The _wehrgeld_ belongs to the master as a compensation for the loss of his property。 Whether the slave is killed or stolen； the indemnity does not change； for the injury is the same；