ief indicates his purpose。'' But who of us asks his criminals about their wishes and beliefs？
If we grant the correctness of what we have said we gain the conviction that we can proceed with approximate certainty and conscientiousness only if we speak with the criminal； not alone concerning the deed immediately in question； but also searchingly concerning the important conditions of his inner life。 So we may as far as possible see clearly what he is according to general notions and his particular relationships。
The same thing must also be done with regard to an important witness； especially when much depends upon his way of judging； of experiencing； of feeling； and of thinking； and when it is impossible to discover these things otherwise。 Of course such analyses are often tiring and without result； but that； on the other hand； they lay open with few words whole broadsides of physical conditions； so that we need no longer doubt； is also a matter of course。 Who wants to leave unused a formula of Schopenhauer's： ‘‘We discover what we are through what we do？'' Nothing is easier than to discover from some person important to us what he does； even though the discovery develops merely as a simple conversation about what he has done until now and what he did lately。 And up to date we have gotten at such courses of life only in the great cases； in cases of murder or important political criminals； and then only at externals； we have cared little about the essential deeds； the smaller forms of activity which are always the significant ones。 Suppose we allow some man to speak about others； no matter whom； on condition that he must know them well。 He judges their deeds； praises and condemns them； and thinks that he is talking about them but is really talking about himself alone； for in each judgment of the others he aims to justify and enhance himself； the things he praises he does； what he finds fault with； he does not； or at least he wishes people to believe that he does the former and avoids the
＇1＇ Th。 G。 von Hippel： Lebenlsufe nach aufsteigender Linie。 Ed。 v Oettingen。 Leipzig 1880
＇2＇ G。 Struve： Das Seelenleben oder die Naturgeschichte des Menschen。 Berlin 1869。
latter。 And when he speaks unpleasantly about his friends he has simply abandoned what he formerly had in common with them。 Then again he scolds at those who have gotten on and blames their evil nature for it； but whoever looks more closely may perceive that he had no gain in the same evil and therefore dislikes it。 At the same time； he cannot possibly suppress what he wishes and what he needs。 Now； whoever knows this fact； knows his motives and to decide in view of these with regard to a crime is seldom difficult。 ‘‘Nos besoins vent nos forces''but superficial needs do not really excite us while what is an actual need does。 Once we are compelled； our power to achieve what we want grows astoundingly。 How we wonder at the great amount of power used up； in the case of many criminals！ If we know that a real need was behind the crime； we need no longer wonder at the magnitude of the power。 The relation between the crime and the criminal is defined because we have discovered his needs。 To these needs a man's pleasures belong also； every man； until the practically complete loss of vigor； has as a rule a very obvious need for some kind of pleasure。 It is human nature not to be continuously a machine； to require relief and pleasure。
The word pleasure must of course be used in the loosest way； for one man finds his pleasure in sitting beside the stove or in the shadow； while another speaks of pleasure only when he can bring some change in his work。 I consider it impossible not to understand a man whose pleasures are known； his will； his power； his striving and knowing； feeling and perceiving cannot be made clearer by any other thing。 Moreover； it happens that it is a man's pleasures which bring him into court； and as he resists or falls into them he reveals his character。 The famous author of the ‘‘Imitation of Christ；'' Thomas Kempis； whose book is； saving the Bible； the most wide…spread on earth； says： ‘‘Occasiones hominem fragilem non faciunt； sea； qualis sit； ostendunt。'' That is a golden maxim for the criminalist。 Opportunity； the chance to taste； is close to every man； countless times； is his greatest danger； for that reason it was great wisdom in the Bible that called the devil； the Tempter。 A man's behavior with regard to the discovered or sought…out opportunity exhibits his character wholly and completely。 But the chance to observe men face to face with opportunity is a rare one； and that falling…off with which we are concerned is often the outcome of such an opportunity。 But at this point we ought not longer to learn； but to know； and hence our duty to study the pleasures of men； to know how they behave in the presence of their opportunities。
There is another group of conditions through which you may observe and judge men in general。 The most important one is to know yourself as well as possible； for accurate self…knowledge leads to deep mistrust with regard to others； and only the man suspicious with regard to others is insured； at least a little； against mistakes。 To pass from mistrust to the reception of something good is not difficult； even in cases where the mistrust is well…founded and the presupposition of excellent motives among our fellows is strongly fought。 Nevertheless； when something actually good is perceivable； one is convinced by it and even made happy。 But the converse is not true； for anybody who is too trusting easily presupposes the best at every opportunity； though he may have been deceived a thousand times and is now deceived again。 How it happens that self…knowledge leads to suspicion of others we had better not investigate too closelyit is a fact。
Every man is characterized by the way he behaves in regard to his promises。 I do not mean keeping or breaking a promise； because nobody doubts that the honest man keeps it and the scoundrel does not。 I mean the _*manner_ in which a promise is kept and the _*degree_ in which it is kept。 La Roche…Foucauld＇1＇ says significantly： ‘‘We promise according to our hopes； and perform according to our fears。'' When in any given case promising and hopes and performance and fears are compared； important considerations arise； especially in cases of complicity in crime。
When it is at all possible； and in most cases it is； one ought to concern oneself with a man's style；the handwriting of his soul。 What this consists of cannot be expressed in a definite way。 The style must simply be studied and tested with regard to its capacity for being united with certain presupposed qualities。 Everybody knows that education； bringing…up； and intelligence are indubitably expressed in style； but it may also be observed that style clearly expresses softness or hardness of a character； kindness or cruelty； determination or weakness； integrity or carelessness； and hundreds of other qualities。 Generally the purpose of studying style may be achieved by keeping in mind some definite quality presupposed and by asking oneself； while reading the manuscript of the person in question； whether this quality fuses with the manuscript's form and with the individual tendencies and relationships that occur in the
＇1＇ La Roche…Foucauld： Maximes et Refl