therefore； have been at the foundation of this opinion。 In fact；
extension and impenetrability… which together constitute our
conception of matter… form the supreme empirical principle of the
unity of phenomena； and this principle； in so far as it is empirically
unconditioned； possesses the property of a regulative principle。
But； as every determination of matter which constitutes what is real
in it… and consequently impenetrability… is an effect； which must have
a cause； and is for this reason always derived； the notion of matter
cannot harmonize with the idea of a necessary being； in its
character of the principle of all derived unity。 For every one of
its real properties； being derived； must be only conditionally
necessary； and can therefore be annihilated in thought； and thus the
whole existence of matter can be so annihilated or suppressed。 If this
were not the case； we should have found in the world of phenomena
the highest ground or condition of unity… which is impossible；
according to the second regulative principle。 It follows that
matter； and； in general； all that forms part of the world of sense；
cannot be a necessary primal being； nor even a principle of
empirical unity； but that this being or principle must have its
place assigned without the world。 And； in this way； we can proceed
in perfect confidence to deduce the phenomena of the world and their
existence from other phenomena； just as if there existed no
necessary being； and we can at the same time； strive without ceasing
towards the attainment of completeness for our deduction； just as if
such a being… the supreme condition of all existences… were
presupposed by the mind。
These remarks will have made it evident to the reader that the ideal
of the Supreme Being； far from being an enouncement of the existence
of a being in itself necessary； is nothing more than a regulative
principle of reason； requiring us to regard all connection existing
between phenomena as if it had its origin from an all…sufficient
necessary cause； and basing upon this the rule of a systematic and
necessary unity in the explanation of phenomena。 We cannot； at the
same time； avoid regarding； by a transcendental subreptio； this formal
principle as constitutive； and hypostatizing this unity。 Precisely
similar is the case with our notion of space。 Space is the primal
condition of all forms； which are properly just so many different
limitations of it； and thus； although it is merely a principle of
sensibility； we cannot help regarding it as an absolutely necessary
and self…subsistent thing… as an object given a priori in itself。 In
the same way； it is quite natural that； as the systematic unity of
nature cannot be established as a principle for the empirical
employment of reason； unless it is based upon the idea of an ens
realissimum； as the supreme cause； we should regard this idea as a
real object； and this object； in its character of supreme condition；
as absolutely necessary； and that in this way a regulative should be
transformed into a constitutive principle。 This interchange becomes
evident when I regard this supreme being； which； relatively to the
world； was absolutely （unconditionally） necessary； as a thing per
se。 In this case； I find it impossible to represent this necessity
in or by any conception； and it exists merely in my own mind； as the
formal condition of thought； but not as a material and hypostatic
condition of existence。
SECTION VI。 Of the Impossibility of a Physico…Theological Proof。
If； then； neither a pure conception nor the general experience of an
existing being can provide a sufficient basis for the proof of the
existence of the Deity； we can make the attempt by the only other
mode… that of grounding our argument upon a determinate experience
of the phenomena of the present world； their constitution and
disposition； and discover whether we can thus attain to a sound
conviction of the existence of a Supreme Being。 This argument we shall
term the physico…theological argument。 If it is shown to be
insufficient； speculative reason cannot present us with any
satisfactory proof of the existence of a being corresponding to our
transcendental idea。
It is evident from the remarks that have been made in the
preceding sections； that an answer to this question will be far from
being difficult or unconvincing。 For how can any experience be
adequate with an idea？ The very essence of an idea consists in the
fact that no experience can ever be discovered congruent or adequate
with it。 The transcendental idea of a necessary and all…sufficient
being is so immeasurably great； so high above all that is empirical；
which is always conditioned； that we hope in vain to find materials in
the sphere of experience sufficiently ample for our conception； and in
vain seek the unconditioned among things that are conditioned； while
examples； nay； even guidance is denied us by the laws of empirical
synthesis。
If the Supreme Being forms a link in the chain of empirical
conditions； it must be a member of the empirical series； and； like the
lower members which it precedes； have its origin in some higher member
of the series。 If； on the other hand； we disengage it from the
chain； and cogitate it as an intelligible being； apart from the series
of natural causes… how shall reason bridge the abyss that separates
the latter from the former？ All laws respecting the regress from
effects to causes； all synthetical additions to our knowledge relate
solely to possible experience and the objects of the sensuous world；
and； apart from them； are without significance。
The world around us opens before our view so magnificent a spectacle
of order； variety； beauty； and conformity to ends； that whether we
pursue our observations into the infinity of space in the one
direction； or into its illimitable divisions in the other； whether
we regard the world in its greatest or its least manifestations…
even after we have attained to the highest summit of knowledge which
our weak minds can reach； we find that language in the presence of
wonders so inconceivable has lost its force； and number its power to
reckon； nay； even thought fails to conceive adequately； and our
conception of the whole dissolves into an astonishment without power
of expression… all the more eloquent that it is dumb。 Everywhere
around us we observe a chain of causes and effects； of means and ends；
of death and birth； and； as nothing has entered of itself into the
condition in which we find it； we are constantly referred to some
other thing； which itself suggests the same inquiry regarding its
cause； and thus the universe must sink into the abyss of
nothingness； unless we admit that； besides this infinite chain of
contingencies； there exists something that is primal and
self…subsistent… something which； as the cause of this phenomenal
world； secures its continuance and preservation。
This highest cause… what magnitude shall we attribute to it？ Of
the content of the world we are ignorant； still less can we estimate
its magnitude by comparison with the sphere of the possible。 But
this supreme cause being a necessity of the human mind； what is
there to prevent us from attributing to it such a degree of perfection
as to place it above the sphere of all that is possible？ This we can
easily do； although only by the aid of the faint outline of an
abstract conception； by representing this being to ourselves as
containing in itself； as an individual substance； all possible
perfection… a conception which satisfies that requirement of reason
which demands parsimony in principles； which is free from
self…contradiction； which even contributes to the extension of the
employment of reason in experience； by means of the guidance
afforded by this idea to order and system； and which in no respect
conflicts with any law of experience。
This argument always deserves to be mentioned with respect。 It is
the oldest； the clearest； and that most in conformity with the
common reason of humanity。 It animates the study of nature； as it
itself derives its existence and draws ever new strength from that
source。 It introduces aims and ends into a sphere in which our
observation could not of itself have discovered them； and extends
our knowledge of nature； by directing our attention to a unity； the
principle of which lies beyond nature。 This knowledge of nature
again reacts upon this idea… its cause； and thus our belief in a
divine author of the universe rises to the power of an irresistible
conviction。
For these reasons it would be utterly hopeless to attempt to rob
this argument of the authority it has always enjoyed。 The mind；
unceasingly elevated by these considerations； which； although
empirical； are so remarkably powerful； and continually adding to their
force； will not suffer itself to be depressed by the doubts
suggested by subtle speculation； it tears itself out of this state
of uncertainty； the moment it casts a look upon the wondrous forms
of nature and the majesty of the universe； and rises from height to
height； from condition to condition； till it has elevated itself to
the supreme and unconditioned author of all。
But although we have nothing to object to the reasonableness and
utility of this procedure； but have rather to commend and encourage
it； we cannot approve of the claims which this argument advances to
demonstrative certainty and to a reception upon its own merits；
apart from favour or support by other arguments。 Nor can it injure the
cause of morality to endeavour to lower the tone of the arrogant
sophist； and to teach him that modesty and moderation which are the
properties of a belief that brings calm and content into the mind；
without prescribing to it an unworthy subjection。 I maintain； then；
that the physico…theological argument is insufficient of itself to
prove the existence of a Supreme Being； that