ow？ their belief was that the earth was subject toprofound internal forces as well as surface ones。 however； they couldn鈥檛 convincingly explainhow all those clamshells got up there。
it was while puzzling over these matters that hutton had a series of exceptional insights。
from looking at his own farmland； he could see that soil was created by the erosion of rocksand that particles of this soil were continually washed away and carried off by streams andrivers and redeposited elsewhere。 he realized that if such a process were carried to its naturalconclusion then earth would eventually be worn quite smooth。 yet everywhere around himthere were hills。 clearly there had to be some additional process； some form of renewal anduplift； that created new hills and mountains to keep the cycle going。 the marine fossils onmountaintops； he decided； had not been deposited during floods； but had risen along with themountains themselves。 he also deduced that it was heat within the earth that created newrocks and continents and thrust up mountain chains。 it is not too much to say that geologistswouldn鈥檛 grasp the full implications of this thought for two hundred years； when finally theyadopted plate tectonics。 above all； what hutton鈥檚 theories suggested was that earth processesrequired huge amounts of time； far more than anyone had ever dreamed。 there were enoughinsights here to transform utterly our understanding of the earth。
in 1785； hutton worked his ideas up into a long paper； which was read at consecutivemeetings of the royal society of edinburgh。 it attracted almost no notice at all。 it鈥檚 not hardto see why。 here； in part； is how he presented it to his audience：
in the one case； the forming cause is in the body which is separated； for； after thebody has been actuated by heat； it is by the reaction of the proper matter of thebody； that the chasm which constitutes the vein is formed。 in the other case； again；the cause is extrinsic in relation to the body in which the chasm is formed。 therehas been the most violent fracture and divulsion； but the cause is still to seek； andit appears not in the vein； for it is not every fracture and dislocation of the solidbody of our earth； in which minerals； or the proper substances of mineral veins；are found。
needless to say； almost no one in the audience had the faintest idea what he was talkingabout。 encouraged by his friends to expand his theory； in the touching hope that he mightsomehow stumble onto clarity in a more expansive format； hutton spent the next ten yearspreparing his magnum opus； which was published in two volumes in 1795。
together the two books ran to nearly a thousand pages and were； remarkably； worse thaneven his most pessimistic friends had feared。 apart from anything else； nearly half the pleted work now consisted of quotations from french sources； still in the original french。
a third volume was so unenticing that it wasn鈥檛 published until 1899； more than a centuryafter hutton鈥檚 death； and the fourth and concluding volume was never published at all。
hutton鈥檚 theory of the earth is a strong candidate for the least read important book in science（or at least would be if there weren鈥檛 so many others）。 even charles lyell； the greatestgeologist of the following century and a man who read everything； admitted he couldn鈥檛 getthrough it。
luckily hutton had a boswell in the form of john playfair； a professor of mathematics atthe university of edinburgh and a close friend； who could not only write silken prose but鈥攖hanks to many years at hutton鈥檚 elbow鈥攁ctually understood what hutton was trying to say；most of the time。 in 1802； five years after hutton鈥檚 death； playfair produced a simplifiedexposition of the huttonian principles； entitled illustrations of the huttonian theory of theearth。 the book was gratefully received by those who took an active interest in geology；which in 1802 was not a large number。 that； however； was about to change。 and how。
in the winter of 1807； thirteen like…minded souls in london got together at the freemasonstavern at long acre； in covent garden； to form a dining club to be called the geologicalsociety。 the idea was to meet once a month to swap geological notions over a glass or two ofmadeira and a convivial dinner。 the price of the meal was set at a deliberately hefty fifteenshillings to discourage those whose qualifications were merely cerebral。 it soon becameapparent； however； that there was a demand for something more properly institutional； with apermanent headquarters； where people could gather to share and discuss new findings。 inbarely a decade membership grew to four hundred鈥攕till all gentlemen； of course鈥攁nd thegeological was threatening to eclipse the royal as the premier scientific society in thecountry。
the members met twice a month from november until june； when virtually all of themwent off to spend the summer doing fieldwork。 these weren鈥檛 people with a pecuniary interestin minerals； you understand； or even academics for the most part； but simply gentlemen withthe wealth and time to indulge a hobby at a more or less professional level。 by 1830； therewere 745 of them； and the world would never see the like again。
it is hard to imagine now； but geology excited the nineteenth century鈥攑ositively grippedit鈥攊n a way that no science ever had before or would again。 in 1839； when roderickmurchison published the silurian system； a plump and ponderous study of a type of rockcalled greywacke； it was an instant bestseller； racing through four editions； even though it costeight guineas a copy and was； in true huttonian style； unreadable。 （as even a murchisonsupporter conceded； it had 鈥渁 total want of literary attractiveness。鈥潱nd when； in 1841； thegreat charles lyell traveled to america to give a series of lectures in boston； selloutaudiences of three thousand at a time packed into the lowell institute to hear his tranquilizingdescriptions of marine zeolites and seismic perturbations in campania。
throughout the modern； thinking world； but especially in britain； men of learning venturedinto the countryside to do a little 鈥渟tone…breaking；鈥潯s they called it。 it was a pursuit takenseriously； and they tended to dress with appropriate gravity； in top hats and dark suits； exceptfor the reverend william buckland of oxford； whose habit it was to do his fieldwork in anacademic gown。
the field attracted many extraordinary figures； not least the aforementioned murchison；who spent the first thirty or so years of his life galloping after foxes； converting aeronauticallychallenged birds into puffs of drifting feathers with buckshot； and showing no mental agilitywhatever beyond that needed to read the times or play a hand of cards。 then he discoveredan interest in rocks and became with rather astounding swiftness a titan of geologicalthinking。
then there was dr。 james parkinson； who was also an early socialist and author of manyprovocative pamphlets with titles like 鈥渞evolution without bloodshed。鈥潯n 1794； he wasimplicated in a faintly lunatic…sounding conspiracy called 鈥渢he pop…gun plot；鈥潯n which it wasplanned to shoot king george iii in the neck with a poisoned dart as he sat in his box at thetheater。 parkinson was hauled before the privy council for questioning and came within anace of being dispatched in irons to australia before the charges against him were quietlydropped。 adopting a more conservative approach to life； he developed an interest in geologyand became one of the founding members of the geological society and the author of animportant geological text； organic remains of a former world； which remained in print forhalf a century。 he never caused trouble again。 today； however； we remember him for hislandmark study of the affliction then called the 鈥渟haking palsy；鈥潯ut known ever since asparkinson鈥檚 disease。 （parkinson had one other slight claim to fame。 in 1785； he becamepossibly the only person in history to win a natural history museum in a raffle。 the museum；in london鈥檚 leicester square； had been founded by sir ashton lever； who had driven himselfbankrupt with his unrestrained collecting of natural wonders。 parkinson kept the museum until1805； when he could no longer support it and the collection was broken up and sold。）not quite as remarkable in character but more influential than all the others bined wascharles lyell。 lyell was born in the year that hutton died and only seventy miles away； in thevillage of kinnordy。 though scottish by birth； he grew up in the far south of england； in thenew forest of hampshire； because his mother was convinced that scots were feckless drunks。
as was generally the pattern with nineteenth…century gentlemen scientists； lyell came from abackground of fortable wealth and intellectual vigor。 his father； also named charles； hadthe unusual distinction of being a leading authority on the poet dante and on mosses。
（orthotricium lyelli； which most visitors to the english countryside will at some time have saton； is named for him。） from his father lyell gained an interest in natural history； but it was atoxford； where he fell under the spell of the reverend william buckland鈥攈e of the flowinggowns鈥攖hat the young lyell began his lifelong devotion to geology。
buckland was a bit of a charming oddity。 he had some real achievements； but he isremembered at least as much for his eccentricities。 he was particularly noted for a menagerieof wild animals； some large and dangerous； that were allowed to roam through his house andgarden； and for his desire to eat his way through every animal in creation。 depending onwhim and availability； guests to buckland鈥檚 house might be served baked guinea pig； mice inbatter； roasted hedgehog； or boiled southeast asian sea slug。 buckland was able to find meritin them all； except the mon garden mole； which he declared disgusting。 almostinevitably； he became the leading authority on coprolites鈥攆ossilized feces鈥攁nd had a tablemade entirely out of his collection of specimens。
even when conducting serious science his manner was generally singular。 once mrs。
buckland found herself being shaken awake in the middle of the night； her husband crying inexcitement： 鈥渕y dear； i believe that cheirotherium 鈥檚 foo