nd intelligence in the nation； of the general understanding that the nation holds its power to govern as a trust from God； and that to God through the people all civil rulers are strictly responsible。 Let the mass of the people in any nation lapse into the ignorance and barba… 132 rism of atheism； or lose themselves in that supreme sophism called pantheism； the grand error of ancient as well as of modern gentilism； and liberty； social or political； except that wild kind of liberty； and perhaps not even that should be excepted； which obtains among savages； would be lost and irrecoverable。
But after all； this theory does not meet all the difficulties of the case。 It derives sovereignty from God； and thus asserts the divine origin of government in the sense that the origin of nature is divine； it derives it from God through the people； collectively； or as society； and therefore concedes it a natural； human； and social element； which distinguishes it from pure theocracy。 It； however； does not explain how authority comes from God to the people。 The ruler； king； prince； or emperor； holds from God through the people； but how do the people themselves hold from God？ Mediately or immediately？ If mediately； what is the medium？ Surely not the people themselves。 The people can no more be the medium than the principle of their own sovereignty。 If immediately； then God governs in them as he does in the church； and no man is free to think or act contrary to popular opinion； or in any case to question the wisdom or justice 133 of any of the acts of the state； which is arriving at state absolutism by another process。 Besides； this would theoretically exclude all human or natural activity； all human intelligence and free…will from the state； which were to fall into either pantheism or atheism。
VIII。 The right of government to govern； or political authority； is derived by the collective people or society； from God through the law of nature。 Rulers hold from God through the people or nation； and the people or nation hold from God through the natural law。 How nations are founded or constituted； or a particular people becomes a sovereign political people； invested with the rights of society； will be considered in following chapters。 Here it suffices to say that supposing a political people or nation； the sovereignty vests in the community； not supernaturally； or by an external supernatural appointment； as the clergy hold their authority； but by the natural law； or law by which God governs the whole moral creation。
They who assert the origin of government in nature are right； so far as they derive it from God through the law of nature； and are wrong only when they understand by the law of nature the physical force or forces of nature； which 134 are not laws in the primary and proper sense of the term。 The law of nature is not the order or rule of the divine action in nature which is rightfully called providence； but is； as has been said； law in its proper and primary sense； ordained by the Author of nature； as its sovereign and supreme Lawgiver； and binds all of his creatures who are endowed with reason and free…will； and is called natural； because promulgated through the reason common to all men。 Undoubtedly； it was in the first instance； to the first man； supernaturally promulgated； as it is republished and confirmed by Christianity； as an integral part of the Christian code itself。 Man needs even yet instruction in relation to matters lying within the range of natural reason； or else secular schools； colleges； and universities would be superfluous； and manifestly the instructor of the first man could have been only the Creator himself。
The knowledge of the natural law has been transmitted from Adam to us through two channelsreason； which is in every man； and in immediate relation with the Creator； and the traditions of the primitive instruction embodied in language and what the Romans call jus gentium； or law common to all civilized nations。 Under this law。 whose prescriptions are promul… 135 gated through reason and embodied in universal jurisprudence； nations are providentially constituted； and invested with political sovereignty； and as they are constituted under this law and hold from God through it； it defines their respective rights and powers； their limitation and their extent。
The political sovereignty； under the law of nature； attaches to the people； not individually； but collectively； as civil or political society。 It is vested in the political community or nation； not in an individual； or family； or a class； because； under the natural law； all men are equal； as they are under the Christian law； and one man has； in his own right； no authority over another。 The family has in the father a natural chief； but political society has no natural chief or chiefs。 The authority of the father is domestic； not political； and ceases when his children have attained to majority； have married and become heads of families themselves； or have ceased to make part of the paternal household。 The recognition of the authority of the father beyond the limits of his own household； is； if it ever occurs； by virtue of the ordinance； the consent； express or tacit； of the political society。 There are no natural…born political chiefs； and wherever we find men claiming 136 or acknowledged to be such； they are either usurpers； what the Greeks called tyrants； or they are made such by the will or constitution of the people or the nation。
Both monarchy and aristocracy were； no doubt； historically developed from the authority of the patriarchs； and have unquestionably been sustained by an equally false development of the right of property； especially landed property。 The owner of the land； or he who claimed to own it； claimed as an incident of his ownership the right to govern it； and consequently to govern all who occupied it。 But however valid may be the landlord's title to the soil； and it is doubtful if man can own any thing in land beyond the usufruct； it can give him under the law of nature no political right。 Property； like all natural rights； is entitled by the natural law to protection； but not to govern。 Whether it shall be made a basis of political power or not is a question of political prudence； to be determined by the supreme political authority。 It was the basis； and almost exclusive basis； in the Middle Ages； under feudalism； and is so still in most states。 France and the United States are the principal exceptions in Christendom。 Property alone； or coupled with birth； is made elsewhere in some form a basis of political 137 power； and where made so by the sovereign authority； it is legitimate； but not wise nor desirable； for it takes from the weak and gives to the strong。 The rich have in their riches advantages enough over the poor； without receiving from the state any additional advantage。 An aristocracy； in the sense of families distinguished by birth； noble and patriotic services； wealth； cultivation； refinement； taste； and manners； is desirable in every nation； is a nation's ornament； and also its chief support； but they need and should receive no political recognition。 They should form no privileged class in the state or political society。
CHAPTER VII
CONSTITUTION OF GOVERNMENT。
The Constitution is twofold： the constitution of the state or nation； and the constitution of the government。 The constitution of the government is； or is held to be； the work of the nation itself； the constitution of the state； or the people of the state； is； in its origin at least； providential； given by God himself； operating through historical events or natural causes。 The one originates in law； the other in historical fact。 The nation must exist； and exist as a political community； before it can give itself a constitution； and no state； any more than an individual； can exist without a constitution of some sort。
The distinction between the providential constitution of the people and the constitution of the government； is not always made。 The illustrious Count de Maistre； one of the ablest political philosophers who wrote in the last century； or the first quarter of the present； in his work 139 on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions； maintains that constitutions are generated； not made； and excludes all human agency from their formation and growth。 Disgusted with French Jacobinism； from which he and his kin and country had suffered so much； and deeply wedded to monarchy in both church and state； he had the temerity to maintain that God creates expressly royal families for the government of nations； and that it is idle for a nation to expect a good government without a king who has descended from one of those divinely created royal families。 It was with some such thought； most likely； that a French journalist； writing home from the United States； congratulated the American people on having a Bonaparte in their army； so that when their democracy failed； as in a few years it was sure to do； they would have a descendant of a royal house to be their king or emperor。 Alas！ the Bonaparte has left us； and besides； he was not the descendant of a royal house； and was； like the present Emperor of the French； a decided parvenu。 Still； the Emperor of the French； if only a parvenu； bears himself right imperially among sovereigns； and has no peer among any of the descendants of the old royal families of Europe
140 There is a truth； however； in De Maistre's doctrine that constitutions are generated； or developed； not created de novo； or made all at once。 But nothing is more true than that a nation can alter its constitution by its own deliberate and voluntary action； and many nations have done so； and sometimes for the better； as well as for the worse。 If the constitution once given is fixed and unalterable； it must be wholly divine；