opposition； which is certainly likewise contained in the subjects with which the learning of the
ancients was occupied； but which had not come to consciousness。 This consciousness of the
opposition； this 'Fall；' is the main point of interest in the conception of the Christian religion。 The
bringing about in thought of the reconciliation which is accepted in belief； now constitutes the
whole interest of knowledge。 Implicitly it has come to pass； for knowledge considers itself
qualified to bring about in itself this recognition of the reconciliation。 The philosophic systems are
therefore no more than modes of this absolute unity； and only the concrete unity of those opposites
is the truth。
3。 As regards the stages which were reached in the progress of this knowledge we have to
mention three of the principal。
a。 First of all we find the union of those opposites stated； and to prove it genuine attempts are
made； though not yet determined in purity。
b。 The second stage is the metaphysical union； and here； with Descartes； the philosophy of
modern times as abstract thought properly speaking begins。
i。 Thinking understanding seeks to bring to pass the union； inasmuch as it investigates with
its pure thought…determinations； this is in the first place the standpoint of metaphysics as
such。
ii。 In the second place； we have to consider negation； the destruction of this metaphysics …
the attempt to consider knowledge on its own account； and the determinations which
proceed from it。
c。 The third stage is that this union itself which is to be brought about； and which is the only
subject of interest； comes to consciousness and becomes an object。 As principle the union has the
form of the relationship of knowledge to the content； and thus this question has been put： 'How is；
and how can thought be identical with the objective？' With this the inward element which lies at the
basis of this metaphysic is raised into explicitude and made an object； and this includes all modern
philosophy in its range。
4。 In respect to the external history and the lives of the philosophers； it will strike us that from this
time on； these appear to be very different from those of the philosophers of ancient times； whom
we regarded as self…sufficing individualities。 It is required that a philosopher should live as he
teaches； that he should despise the world and not enter into connection with it； this the ancients
have accomplished； and they are such plastic individualities just because the inward spiritual aim of
philosophy has likewise frequently determined their external relations and conditions。 The object of
their knowledge was to take a thoughtful view of the universe； they kept the external connection
with the world all the further removed from themselves because they did not greatly approve of
much therein present； or； at least； it ever proceeds on its way； according to its own particular laws；
on which the individual is dependent。 The individual likewise participates in the present interests of
external life； in order to satisfy his personal ends； and through them to attain to honour； wealth；
respect； and distinction； the ancient philosophers； however； because they remained in the Idea； did
not concern themselves with things that were not the objects of their thought。 Hence with the
Greeks and Romans the philosophers lived in an independent fashion peculiar to themselves； and
in an external mode of life which appeared suitable to and worthy of the science they professed；
they conducted themselves independently as private persons； unfettered by outside trammels； and
they may be compared to the monks who renounced all temporal goods。
In the Middle Ages it was chiefly the clergy； doctors of theology； who occupied themselves with
philosophy。 In the transition period the philosophers showed themselves to be in an inward
warfare with themselves and in an external warfare with their surroundings； and their lives were
spent in a wild； unsettled fashion。
In modern times things are very different； now we no longer see philosophic individuals who
constitute a class by themselves。 With the present day all difference has disappeared； philosophers
are not monks； for we find them generally in connection with the world； participating with others in
some common work or calling。 They live； not independently； but in the relation of citizens； or they
occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state。 Certainly they may be private persons；
but if so； their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship。 They
are involved in present conditions； in the world and its work and progress。 Thus their philosophy is
only by the way； a sort of luxury and superfluity。 This difference is really to be found in the manner
in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion。
In modern times； namely； on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself； the
external world is at rest； is brought into order … worldly relationships； conditions； modes of life；
have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational。
We see a universal； comprehensible connection； and with that individuality likewise attains another
character and nature； for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients。 This connection is
of such power that every individuality is under its dominion； and yet at the same time can construct
for itself an inward world。 The external has thus been reconciled with itself in such a way that both
inward and outward may be self…sufficing and remain independent of one another； and the
individual is in the condition of being able to leave his external side to external order； while in the
case of those plastic forms the external could only be determined entirely from within。 Now； on the
contrary； with the higher degree of strength attained by the inward side of the individual； he may
hand the external over to chance； just as he leaves clothing to the contingencies of fashion； not
considering it worth while to exert his understanding upon it。 The external he leaves to be
determined by the order which is present in the particular sphere in which his lot is cast。 The
circumstances of life are； in the true sense； private affairs； determined by outward conditions； and
do not contain anything worthy of our notice。 Life becomes scholarly； uniform； commonplace； it
connects itself with outwardly given relationships and cannot represent or set itself forth as a form
pertaining only to itself。 Man must not take up the character of showing himself an independent
form； and giving himself a position in the world created by himself。 Because the objective power of
external relationships is infinitely great； and for that reason the way in which I perforce am placed
in them has become a matter of indifference to me； personality and the individual life generally are
equally indifferent。 A philosopher； it is said； should live as a philosopher； i。e。； should be
independent of the external relationships of the world； and should give up occupying himself with
and troubling himself concerning them。 But thus circumscribed in respect of all necessities； more
especially of culture； no one can suffice for himself； he must seek to act in connection with others。
The modern world is this essential power of connection； and it implies the fact that it is clearly
necessary for the individual to enter into these relations of external existence； only a common
mode of existence is possible in any calling or condition； and to this Spinoza forms the solitary
exception。 Thus in earlier times bravery was individual； while modern bravery consists in each not
acting after his own fashion； but relying on his connection with others … and this constitutes his
whole merit。 The calling of philosopher is not； like that of the monks； an organized condition。
Members of academies of learning are no doubt organized in part； but even a special calling like
theirs sinks into the ordinary commonplace of state or class relationships； because admission
thereinto is outwardly determined。 The real matter is to remain faithful to one's aims。
Section One： Modern Philosophy in its First Statement
A。 BACON。
There was already being accomplished the abandonment of the content which lies beyond us； and
which through its form has lost the merit it possessed of being true； and is become of no
significance to self…consciousness or the certainty of self and of its actuality； this we see for the first
time consciously expressed； though not as yet in a very perfect form； by Francis Bacon； Baron
Verulam； Viscount St。 Albans。 He is therefore instanced as in the fore…front of all this empirical
philosophy； and even now our countrymen like to adorn their works with sententious sayings
culled from him。 Baconian philosophy thus usually means a philosophy which is founded on the
observation of the external or spiritual nature of man in his inclinations； desires； rational and judicial
qualities。 From these conclusions are drawn； and general conceptions； laws pertaining to this
domain； are thus discovered。 Bacon has entirely set aside and rejected the scholastic method of
reasoning from remote abstractions and being blind to what lies before one’s eyes。 He takes as
his standpoint the sensuous manifestation as it appears to the cultured man； as the latter reflects
upon it； and this is conformable to the principle of accepting the finite and worldly as such。
Bacon was born in London in 1561。 His progenitors and relatives held high office in the state； and
his father was Keeper of the Great Seal to Queen Elizabeth。 He in his turn； having been educated
to follow the same vocation； at once devoted himself to the business of the State； and entered
upon an important career。 He early displayed great talent； and at the age of nineteen he produced
a work on the condition of Europe （De statu Europ？）。 Bacon in his youth attached himself to the
Earl of Essex； the favourite of Elizabeth； through whose support he； who as a younger son had to
see his pater